Mengenai Morphology
A. THE MEANING OF MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is the study of the forms of words like the identification, analysis and description of the structure of words. It is also the ways in which words are related to the other words of the same language.
Morphology is the part of the grammar that is concerned with words and word formation, mainly is Lexicon, it's the filing cabinet drawer how words are put together and what the meanings of this different parts. The example of lexicon is word, it's the smallest free form found in language (it doesn't have to occur in fixed position with respect to other forms).
Properties of words is a meaningful unit of language that can stand on its own stored in mental lexicon with information about its 'part of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc)' and composed of one or more morphemes.
There are kinds of words:
" Simple word is contain only morpheme.
" Complex word is contain more than morpheme.
Word structure
ﾢ Root : the core of the word and carries the major component of meaning and the forms base for affixes to attach, can't be analyzed into smaller parts. For example: chatters has the inflectional root, but the lexical root chat.
ﾢ Stem : formed when a root is combined with an affix (that the other affixes can continue to be attached to). For example: word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new stem friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached.
B. MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS, FREE AND BOUND MORPHEMES
Morphemes are the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. For example, builder has 2 morphemes build and -er. It's also the smallest meaningful linguistic unit. The example of morphemes are apple, cat, help, salamander, fling, lens, -er, -ing, -s, pre-, un-, etc. One word can have lots of morphemes, like: Oversimplifications'over + simple + ify + cation + s
There are two basic types of morphemes:
Free morpheme
It's a morpheme that can be a word by itself, it can stand alone or can occur as an independent word all by themselves. It's those which can stand alone as words of a language, whereas bound morphemes must be attached to the other morphemes. For example, simple words:
" Go
" Buy
" Walk
" Orange
" Bread
" Make
" Good
" Sad
" Push
" Drink
" Hurry
" Call
" Dove
" Dope
" Hear
" Brush
" Match
" Calm
" Nudge
" doubt
Bound morpheme
It's a morpheme that must be attached to another element or can't stand alone, but must be attached to other morphemes. Two classes of bound morphemes:
ￒ The first class is class inflectional morphemes.
ￒ The second one is derivational morphemes. A derivational is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original.
The examples of Bound Morphemes
Affixes Words Affixes Words
-able Breakable(adj) ' break(V) + able(suff) -less Speakless(adj)' speak(V)+ less(suff)
-ation Exploitation(N)' exploit(V) + ation(suff) -ous Fallacious(adj)' fallacy(N) + ous(suff)
-er Player(N)' play(V) + er(suff) -ate Activate(V)'active(adj)+ ate(suff)
-ing Letting(N)' let(V) + ing(suff) -ity Personality(N)' personal(adj) + ity(suff)
-ion Promotion(N)' promote(V) + ion(suff) - ize Memorize(V) ' memory(adj) + ize(suff)
-ive Progressive(adj)'progress(V) + ive(suff) -ly Slowly(adv)' slow(adj) + ly(suff)
-ment Agreement(N)' agree(V) + ment(suff) -ness Illness(N)' ill(adj) + ness(suff)
-al National(adj)' nation(N) + al(suff) -ex Ex-president(N) ' ex(preff) + president(N)
-ial Presidential(adj) ' president(N) + ial(suff) -in Income(adj) ' in(preff) + come(adj)
-ian Italian(adj)' Italy(N) + ian(suff) -un Unbelieve(adj)' un(preff) + believe(adj)
-ic Arabic(adj)' arab(N) + ic(suff) -re Reproduce(V)' re(preff) + produce(V)
Allomorphs
Allomorphs are the variant forms of a morpheme. English indefinite article has 2 allomorphs, a and an. Besides that, English plural has three allomorphs, -s (books), -z (cotes) and -iz (glasses). It is provide information about grammatical function by relating words of a sentence. Such as:
a. Prepositions ' about, at, with, after, up, etc.
b. Article ' a, an, the.
c. Pronouns ' I, you, they, we, he, she and it.
d. Modal verbs ' should, must, need, can, could, may, will, would, might, etc.
e. Inflectional affixes ' -s, -ing, -ed.
f. Determiners ' the, more, most, much, many, either, neither.
g. Auxiliary verbs ' be (am, is, are), got, have, do, etc.
h. Conjunctions ' and, that, when, while, although, or, but, whom, whose.
i. Particles ' no, not, nor, as.
The other examples of allomorphs:
A, an and the examples -in, -im, -il, - ir and the examples
A A sentence, a community, a part, a simple, a unique, a dependent, a lawyer, a period, a variant, a computer, a material, a company, a headmaster, a lecture, a university, a unit, a uniform, -in Incompabality, incompetence, informal, invalid, incorrect, inconsiderable.
-im impersonal, impolite, immaterial, imperfect, imbalance, impatrent, immeasurable, immovable, immobile, immoral, immorality, immobility.
An an interest, an orange, an honest, an egg, an English, an advise, an activity, an effect, an object, an individual, an independent, an ugly, an earth, an easy, an effective, an alternative, an ultimate, an Indonesia.
-il illegal, illegality, illegible, illegitimacy, illegitimate.
-ir irrational, irreconcilable, irresponsive, irresponsibility, irresolute, irreplaceable, irresolution, irreversible.
C. AFFIXES
Affixes are a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes are consist of nine groups, there are:
1. Infix
An infix is an affix inserted inside a stem (an existing word) or inserted in the middle. English has very few true infixes and those it does have are marginal. A few are heard in colloquial speech, and a couple more are found in technical terminology.
" The infix "iz" or "izn" is characteristic of hip-hop slang, for example hizouse for house and shiznit for shit.
" The "ma" infix, such as in sophistimacated, saxomaphone, and edumacation.
2. Prefixes
Prefixes are attached to the beginnings of the base word. Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word. Example:
" prefix + verb ' verb
Prefix Meaning Example
Re- Again or back Reproduce, rebuild, revisit
Dis- Reverses the meaning of verb Disappear, disconnect, discontinue
over- Too much Overbook, oversleep, overwork
Un- Reserves the meaning of verb Unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis- Badly or wrongly Misunderstand, misidentify
" prefix + noun ' noun
Prefix Meaning Example
anti- Against Anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
Auto- Self Autobiography, automobile
Bi- Two Bilingualism, biculturalism
Co- Joint Co-founder, co-descendant
counter- Against Counter-argument, counter-proposal
Dis- The converse of Discomfort, dislike
" prefix + adjective ' adjective
Prefix Meaning Example
Un- Negative meaning Unfortunate, Uncomfortable, unjust
Im- Negative meaning Immature, impatient, improbable
In- Negative meaning Inconvenient
il- Negative meaning Illegal
ir- Negative meaning Irreplaceable
3. Suffixes
Suffixes are that are attached at the end of the base (active'activate). Suffixes usually do change the class of word.
" Verb + suffix ' verb
Suffix Meaning Example
-tion Action/instance of Ving Demonstration, alteration
-ant Person who V-s Assistant, consultant
-er Person who V-s something used for Ving Advertiser, driver, silencer, computer
-ment Action/instance of V-ing Development, punishment
-age Action/result of V Breakage, wastage, package
4. Circumfix
A circumfix is an affix, a morpheme that is placed around another morpheme. Circumfixes contrast with prefixes (attached to the beginnings of words), suffixes (attached at the end) and infixes (inserted in the middle).
The circumfix is probably most widely known from the:
" German past participle ( ge- -t for regular verbs). The verb spielen , for example, has the participle gespielt .
" Dutch has a similar system ( spelen - gespeeld in this case).
" In older English, the present participle could be formed using the circumfix a- -ing, for example: Old time is still a-flying
There are three categories of circumfix:
" a-ing (ahunting, arunning)
" em-en (embiggen, embolden, embrighten)
" e-en (enlighten)
5. Simulfix
A simulfix is a type of affix that changes one or more existing phonemes in order to modify the meaning of a morpheme, changes a segment of a stem. In English is generally considered irregularities, all of which left over from pluralization rules,
for example:
" phenomena ' phenomenon
" lose ' lost
" choose ' chosen
6. Suprafix
A suprafix is a type of affix where a suprasegmental change (such as tone or stress) modifies an existing morpheme's meaning. The placement of stress in the following words signals the difference between a noun and a related verb:
" Compact, adj' /`k?m'p￦kt/
" Compact, n' /'k?mp￦kt /
" Progress, n' /`pr??gres /
" Progress v' / pr?'gres/
7. Separable Affix
A separable affix is an affix that can be detached from its stem and located elsewhere in a construction. In some verb forms, the verb and affix appear in one word, whilst in others the verb stem and the affix are separated. German , Dutch , and Hungarian are notable for having many separable verbs.
a. German
" Er ist angekommen (He has arrived / Dia telah tiba)
" Ich komme morgen an (I shall arrive tomorrow / aku akan tiba besok)
b. Ducth
" Hij is aangekomen (He has arrived / Dia telah tiba)
" Ik kom morgen aan (I shall arrive tomorrow / aku akan tiba besok)
c. Hungarian
" Leteszem a telefon (I hang up the phone / Saya menutup telepon)
" Nem teszem le a telefon (I do not hang up the phone / Saya tidak menutup telepon).
8. Derivational Affix
A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original. Derivational affixes serve to alter the meaning of a word by building on a base.
In the examples of words with prefixes and suffixes above, the addition of the prefix un- to healthy alters the meaning of healthy. The resulting word means "not healthy". The other example:
" Successful
" Sadness
" Maker
9. Inflectional affix.
There are a large number of derivational affixes in English. In contrast, there are only eight "inflectional affixes" in English, and these are all suffixes. English has the following inflectional suffixes, which serve a variety of grammatical functions when added to specific types of words. These grammatical functions are shown to the right of each suffix:
a. Cats ' noun plural
b. Uncle's ' noun possessive
c. Walks ' verb present tense third person singular
d. Making ' verb present participle/gerund
e. Showed ' verb simple past tense
f. written ' verb past perfect participle
g. Faster ' adjective comparative
h. Longest ' adjective superlative.
D. HOMOPHONE
Homophone is made from two combining forms homo- (from the Greek word "homos", meaning same) and -phone (from the Greek word "phone", meaning voice or sound). Therefore, homophones are word of the same language that are pronounced alike even if they differ in spelling, meaning, or origin, such as "pair" and "pear". In the other word, homophones are words that have exactly the same sound (pronunciation) but different meanings and (usually) spelling.
Examples:
a. Same sound but different meaning'deer/animal/ and dear/loved/.
b. The two words have the same sound and spelling but different meaning'hand/part of body/ and hand/side/
c. Usually homophones are in grounds of two (see, sea), but very occasionally they can be in groups of three or even four'to, too, two
Oronyms
Oronyms are words which sound the same. Generally the word homophone is used to describe one of a pair or group of words that have the same sound (like prince and prints; allowed and aloud), whilst oronyms are normally strings of words (phrases) such as iced ink and I stink.
Here are some more phrases that sound the same:
" A politician's fate often hangs in a (delicate / delegate) balance.
" Any (grey day / grade A) would be bad news for one professor I know.
" I don't know how (mature / much your) people enjoy such a show.
" I have (known oceans / no notions) that you yourself couldn't imagine.
" If you listen you can hear the (night rain / night train).
Homographs
Two words that have different pronunciations but the same spelling, for example:
o How'rhyming with go and referring to an instrument for shooting arrows, and
o How'rhyming with cow and indicating a bending of the body as a form of respectful greeting.
E. LEXICAL CATEGORY
Lexical category can also called word class. Lexical class or in traditional grammar is called part of speech, it is a linguistic category of words which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behavior. There are two kinds of word classes, opened word class and closed word class
Opened word class
Which constantly acquire new members. Opened word class is a word class that accepts the addition of new items, through such processes as compounding, derivation, coining, borrowing, etc. typical open word classes are nouns, verbs and adjectives. There are kinds of opened word class:
1. Adjectives
An adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's referent. Collectively, adjectives form one of the traditional English eight parts of speech, though linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that also used to be considered adjectives.
A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:
" Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, small is an attributive adjective in "small bus".
" Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, sad is a predicate adjective in "they are sad" and in "that made me sad".
" Absolute adjectives do not belong to a larger construction, and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to; for example, happy is an absolute adjective in "The girl, happy with her doll, did not look where he was going".
" Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, "I read two books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy", happy is a nominal adjective, short for "happy one" or "happy book".
2. Adverbs
An adverb is a part of speech. It is any word that modifies any part of language other than a noun (modifiers of nouns are primarily adjectives and determiners). Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives (including numbers), clauses, sentences and other adverbs. In English, they often end in -ly. This function is called the adverbial function, and is realized not just by single words (i.e., adverbs) but by adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses.
Other languages may form adverbs in different ways, if they are used at all:
ￒ In Dutch adverbs have the basic form of their corresponding adjectives and are not inflected (except for comparison in which case they are inflected like adjectives, too).
ￒ In German the term Adverb is differently defined than in the English language. German adverbs form a group of not inflectable words (except for comparison in which in rare cases some are inflected like adjectives, too). An English adverb, which is derived from an adjective, is arranged in the German language under the adjectives with adverbial use in the sentence.
ￒ Modern Standard Arabic forms adverbs by adding the indefinite accusative ending '-an' to the root. For example, kathiir-'many, becomes kathiiran'much. However, Arabic often avoids adverbs by using a cognate accusative plus an adjective.
3. Interjections
An interjection or exclamation is a lexical category used as a way to refer to some mentioned or understood noun without a grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence, by simply expressing an isolated emotion on the part of the speaker (although most interjections have clear definitions). Filled pauses such as uh, er, um, are also considered interjections. Interjections are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence or in a sentence by themselves.
Interjections are used when the speaker encounters events that cause emotions. The emotions are often strong (surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, enthusiasm, etc.), but are not necessarily so (boredom, irritation, mild surprise, etc.). However, several languages have interjections that cannot be related to emotions.
4. Nouns
Noun that they are all and only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, or idea, etc. and can be the subject or object of a verb.
Classification of nouns in English
a. Proper nouns and common nouns
Proper nouns (also called proper names) are nouns representing unique entities (such as London, Jupiter, Johnny or Toyota), as distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of entities (such as city, planet, person or car). Proper nouns are not normally preceded by an article or other limiting modifier (such as any or some), and are used to denote a particular person, place, or thing without regard to any descriptive meaning the word or phrase may have. The meaning of proper noun capitalization is uniqueness within an implicit context, that is, it provides a name to an instance of a general type when the instance is unique within an implicit context.
b. Count nouns and mass nouns (Countable and uncountable nouns)
Count nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an indefinite article (a or an). Examples of count nouns are chair, nose, and occasion.
Mass nouns (or non-count nouns) differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they can't take plural or combine with number words or quantifiers. Examples from English include laughter, cutlery, helium, and furniture. For example, it is not possible to refer to a furniture or three furnitures. This is true even though the pieces of furniture comprising furniture could be counted. Thus the distinction between mass and count nouns should not be made in terms of what sorts of things the nouns refer to, but rather in terms of how the nouns present these entities.
c. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity, even when they are inflected for the singular. Examples include committee, herd, and school (of fish). These nouns have slightly different grammatical properties than other nouns. For example, the noun phrases that they head can serve as the subject of a collective predicate, even when they are inflected for the singular. A collective predicate is a predicate that cannot normally take a singular subject. An example of the latter is talked amongst themselves.
d. Concrete nouns and abstract nouns
Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least, be observed by at least one of the senses (for instance, chair, apple, Janet or atom).
Abstract nouns, refer to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts (such as justice or hatred). Many abstract nouns are formed by adding noun-forming suffixes (-ness, -ity, -tion) to adjectives or verbs. Examples are happiness (from the adjective happy), circulation (from the verb circulate) and serenity (from the adjective serene).
5. Verbs (except auxiliary verbs, demonstrative adjectives, and possessive adjectives)
Verb is word or phrase that shows what a person or thing, It's also a word (part of speech) that conveys action (bring, read, walk, run, murder), or a state of being (exist, stand). A verb may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object.
o Valency
The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its valency or valence. Verbs can be classified according to their valency:
Valency The example Note
Intransitive She bought the verb buy describes the
idea of buying
transitive She bought shoes what was bought is specified
ditransitive She bought her sister shoes both the bought and the recipient are set forth.
o Copula
A copula (plural: copulae), also called a passive verb or linking verb, is a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate (a subject complement or an adverbial). The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a link or tie that connects two different things.
The term copula is generally used to refer to the main copular verb(s) in a language. In the case of English, this is the verb to be. The term can also be used to refer to some other verbs in the language which fulfill similar functions. Other English copulae include to become, to get, to feel, and to seem.
o Verbal noun and verbal adjective
A verbal noun that is describes the action of the verb. There are several kinds of verbal nouns, including gerunds (seeing), infinitives (to see), and supines.
Verbal adjectives are generally called participles. English has an active participle / a present participle' I heard the sound of breaking glas; and a passive participle / a past participle' I saw the broken glass scattered across the floor.
o Agreement (Verb conjugation)
In languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument (what we tend to call the subject) in person, number and/or gender. With the exception of the verb to be, English shows distinctive agreement only in the third person singular, present tense form of verbs, which, in regular verbs, is marked by adding "-s" (I walk, he walks). The rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb (I walk, you walk, they walk, etc.).
6. Particles
A particle is a function word that is not assignable to any of the traditional grammatical word classes (such as pronouns, articles or conjunctions). The term is a catch-all term for a heterogeneous set of elements and lacks a precise universal definition. It is mostly used for words that help to encode grammatical categories (such as negation, mood or case) and are uninflected. In English, the infinitive marker to and the negator not are examples of words that are usually regarded as particles. Different types of particles in English:
1. Articles, infinitival, prepositional, and adverbial particles
Types of particles Word Examples
Articles* the The big family
Infinitival to To submit
Prepositional over I went over the hill.
Adverbial particles even Even the youngest of them.
Phrasal verbs put off We put it off too long.
Note: *The indefinite article a or an cannot really be classed as uninflected, due to their inherently singular meaning disbarring them from plural usage
2. Interjections, sentence connectors, and conjunctions
Because of their similar functions, interjections, sentence connectors, and conjunctions should be grouped together:
Type of particles The examples
Interjections ah, alas, farewell, goodbye, hello, hi, hmm, hum, no, oh, ouch, wow, yes
Sentence connectors so, well, still, yet, as, also, however, nevertheless, otherwise, moreover, in addition, furthermore, besides, first, second, finally, last but not least, lastly, thus, hence, on the other hand, anyway, then, too
Conjunctions And, or, nor, but, while, although/though, for, because, unless, since
7. Measure words
Measure words, known more formally as numeral classifiers and also called counters, count words, counter words, or counting words, are words (or morphemes) that are used in combination with a numeral to indicate the count of nouns.
Kinds of measure words Examples
Distinction between mass nouns and count nouns " five head of cattle (said by ranchers)
" ten stem of roses (said by florists)
" three pair of pants (or pairs)
Units of measurement " three cups of coffee
" four kernels of corn, three ears of corn, two bushels of corn
" one litre of water
A number alone can be used as an adjective to modify the noun to be counted " four pencils
" three horses
The number and the measure word are combined as a single word when counting " musicians: solo, duet, trio, quartet...
" wombmates: twins, triplets, quadruplets....
8. Adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions)
Linguists sometimes distinguish between a preposition, which precedes its phrase, a postposition, which follows its phrase, and a circumposition, which surrounds its phrase. Taken together, these three parts of speech are called adpositions. In more technical language, an adposition is an element that, prototypically, combines syntactically with a phrase and indicates how that phrase should be interpreted in the surrounding context. Some linguists use the word "preposition" instead of "adposition" for all three cases.
The some uses of English prepositional phrases:
Uses as the examples
Modifier to a verb Sleep throughout the winter
Modifier to a noun The weather in April
The complement of verb Insist on staying home
The complement of noun An amendment to the constitution
The complement of an adjective or adverb Attentive to their needs / Separately from its neighbors
The complement of another preposition Until after supper
9. Preverbs
Although not widely accepted in linguistics, the term preverb is used in Caucasian (including all three families: Northwest Caucasian, Northeast Caucasian and Kartvelian), Caddoan, Athabaskan, and Algonquian linguistics to describe certain elements prefixed to verbs.
Theoretically, any prefix could be called a preverbal element. However, in practice, the term preverb applies more narrowly in these families, and refers to a prefixed element that is normally outside the premise of verbal morphology, such as locations of noun elements, or less often, noun elements themselves.
10. Pronouns
A pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase) with or without a determiner, such as you and they in English. The replaced phrase is called the antecedent of the pronoun. For example, consider the sentence "Lisa gave the coat to Phil." All three nouns in the sentence can be replaced by pronouns: "She gave it to him."
a) Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things:
Personal pronouns Used The examples
Subjective pronouns when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause I like to eat chips, but she does not.
Objective pronouns when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause John likes me but not her.
Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition Anna and Maria looked at him.
Disjunctive pronouns in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts Who does this belong to? Me.
Dummy pronouns when grammatical rules require a noun (or pronoun), but none is semantically required It is raining.
b) Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership.
o In a strict sense, the possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns' Those clothes are mine.
o Often, though, the term "possessive pronoun" is also applied to the so-called possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners)'I lost my wallet.
c) Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates'I'll take these.
d) Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things'Anyone can do that.
e) Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned'People who smoke should quit now.
11. Contractions
A contraction is the shortening of a word, syllable, or word group by omission of internal letters. In traditional grammar, contraction can denote the formation of a new word from one word or a group of words, for example by elision ("I am" contracted to "I'm").
Full form Contracted The example
Not -n't She can't sing.
Am -'m I'm doing homework.
Am not/is not Ain't If I ain't got you.
Are -'re We're a good team.
Is -'s Jack's a smart boy.
Does It's a nice place in Indonesia last year.
Has Mary's taken papers in the willy's shop.
Have -'ve He and I've finished discuss.
Had -'d You'd bought car yesterday.
Did Mika and Bill'd gone to the movie last night.
Would Mr. joseph'd big house in the city.
Will -'ll Tania'll make a big concert in Jakarta.
Of o'- Today is 9 o'clock.
Let us Let's Let's go to the campus.
12. Cardinal numbers
Cardinal numbers refer to the size of a group.
Nominal Note
0 Zero (nought)
1 One
11 Eleven
12 Twelve
13 Thirteen
20 Twenty
90 Ninety
21 Twenty-one If a number is in the range 21 to 99, and the second digit is not zero, one should write the number as two words separated by a hyphen
25 Twenty-five
64 Sixty-four
79 Seventy-nine
83 Eighty-three
99 Ninety-nine
100 One hundred The hundreds are perfectly regular, except that the word hundred remains in its singular form regardless of the number preceding it, thousand is too
1.000 One thousand
21.000 Twenty-one thousand
100.000 One hundred thousand
999.000 Nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand
1.000.000 One million
10.000.000 Ten million
Closed word class
A closed class (or closed word class) is a word class to which no new items can normally be added, and that usually contains a relatively small number of items. Which acquire new members infrequently if at all. Different languages may have different lexical categories, or they might associate different properties to the same one and not all languages have the same lexical categories, for example:
ￒ Spanish uses adjectives almost interchangeably as nouns while English cannot.
ￒ Japanese has two classes of adjectives where English has one.
ￒ Chinese and Japanese have measure words while European languages strictly speaking don't.
ￒ Many languages do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, or adjectives and nouns, etc.
1. Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary is a verb functioning to give further semantic or syntactic information about the main or full verb following it. Functions of the English auxiliary verb, there are:
" Passive voice
The auxiliary verb be is used with a past participle to form the passive voice; for example, the clause "the door was opened" implies that someone (or something) opened it, without stating who (or what) it was. Because many past participles are also stative adjectives, the passive voice can sometimes be ambiguous; for example, "at 8:25, the window was closed" can be a passive-voice sentence meaning, "at 8:25, someone closed the window", or a non-passive-voice sentence meaning "at 8:25, the window was not open". Perhaps because of this ambiguity, the verb get is sometimes used colloquially instead of be in forming the passive voice, "at 8:25, the window got closed."
" Progressive aspect
The auxiliary verb be is used with a present participle to form the progressive aspect; for example, "I am riding my bicycle" describes what the speaker is doing at the very moment of utterance, whereas "I ride my bicycle" is a temporally broader statement.
" Dummy
Properties of the English auxiliary verb
Full verb Definition Examples
Negation Auxiliaries tke not (or n't) to form the negative Cannot (can't), will not (won't), should not (shouldn't), etc.
Inversion Auxiliaries invert to form questions We will watch TV'Will we watch TV
Emphasis The dummy auxiliary do is used for emphasis in positive statements I do like this shirt!
Ellipsis Auxiliaries can appear alone where a main verb has been omitted, but is understood. I will go, but she will not
The verb do can act as a pro-VP (or occasionally a pro-verb) to avoid repetition. John never sings in the kitchen, but Mary does in the shower'John never sings in the kitchen, but she does.
Tag question Auxiliaries can be repetead at the end of a sentence, with negation added or removed. You will come, won't you?
You ate, didn't you?
2. Clitics
A clitic is a morpheme that is grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent on another word or phrase. It is pronounced like an affix, but works at the phrase level.
Classification of clitics
Clitics Examples
Proclitic English: an apple
Enclitic Latin: Senatus Populusque Romanus'Senate people and Roman = The Roman Senate and people.
Mesoclitic Portuguese: Ela lev￡-lo-ia'She take-it-COND" = "She would take it.
Endoclitic
3. Coverbs
Coverb is a term in theoretical linguistics most often applied in languages with serial verb construction, but also for complex predicates consisting of two verbs with one of them being an auxiliary verb contributing different kinds of information like modality, direction or aktionsart. It fulfills a similar function as adpositions would in many Indo-European languages like Dutch or Russian. Coverbs exist in a number of east and south-east Asian languages (e.g. Chinese), as well as west African languages (e.g. Yoruba).
4. Conjunctions
A conjunction (abbreviated CONJ or CNJ) is a part of speech that connects two words, phrases or clauses together. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" should be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins. The definition can also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same function as a single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).
5. Determiners (articles, quantifiers)
A determiner is a noun-modifier that expresses the reference of a noun or noun-phrase in the context, including quantity, rather than attributes expressed by adjectives. This function is usually performed by articles, demonstratives, possessive determiners, or quantifiers.
source: http://cuwie91.wordpress.com/2010/05/26/materi-morphology/
Morphology is the study of the forms of words like the identification, analysis and description of the structure of words. It is also the ways in which words are related to the other words of the same language.
Morphology is the part of the grammar that is concerned with words and word formation, mainly is Lexicon, it's the filing cabinet drawer how words are put together and what the meanings of this different parts. The example of lexicon is word, it's the smallest free form found in language (it doesn't have to occur in fixed position with respect to other forms).
Properties of words is a meaningful unit of language that can stand on its own stored in mental lexicon with information about its 'part of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc)' and composed of one or more morphemes.
There are kinds of words:
" Simple word is contain only morpheme.
" Complex word is contain more than morpheme.
Word structure
ﾢ Root : the core of the word and carries the major component of meaning and the forms base for affixes to attach, can't be analyzed into smaller parts. For example: chatters has the inflectional root, but the lexical root chat.
ﾢ Stem : formed when a root is combined with an affix (that the other affixes can continue to be attached to). For example: word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new stem friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached.
B. MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS, FREE AND BOUND MORPHEMES
Morphemes are the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. For example, builder has 2 morphemes build and -er. It's also the smallest meaningful linguistic unit. The example of morphemes are apple, cat, help, salamander, fling, lens, -er, -ing, -s, pre-, un-, etc. One word can have lots of morphemes, like: Oversimplifications'over + simple + ify + cation + s
There are two basic types of morphemes:
Free morpheme
It's a morpheme that can be a word by itself, it can stand alone or can occur as an independent word all by themselves. It's those which can stand alone as words of a language, whereas bound morphemes must be attached to the other morphemes. For example, simple words:
" Go
" Buy
" Walk
" Orange
" Bread
" Make
" Good
" Sad
" Push
" Drink
" Hurry
" Call
" Dove
" Dope
" Hear
" Brush
" Match
" Calm
" Nudge
" doubt
Bound morpheme
It's a morpheme that must be attached to another element or can't stand alone, but must be attached to other morphemes. Two classes of bound morphemes:
ￒ The first class is class inflectional morphemes.
ￒ The second one is derivational morphemes. A derivational is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original.
The examples of Bound Morphemes
Affixes Words Affixes Words
-able Breakable(adj) ' break(V) + able(suff) -less Speakless(adj)' speak(V)+ less(suff)
-ation Exploitation(N)' exploit(V) + ation(suff) -ous Fallacious(adj)' fallacy(N) + ous(suff)
-er Player(N)' play(V) + er(suff) -ate Activate(V)'active(adj)+ ate(suff)
-ing Letting(N)' let(V) + ing(suff) -ity Personality(N)' personal(adj) + ity(suff)
-ion Promotion(N)' promote(V) + ion(suff) - ize Memorize(V) ' memory(adj) + ize(suff)
-ive Progressive(adj)'progress(V) + ive(suff) -ly Slowly(adv)' slow(adj) + ly(suff)
-ment Agreement(N)' agree(V) + ment(suff) -ness Illness(N)' ill(adj) + ness(suff)
-al National(adj)' nation(N) + al(suff) -ex Ex-president(N) ' ex(preff) + president(N)
-ial Presidential(adj) ' president(N) + ial(suff) -in Income(adj) ' in(preff) + come(adj)
-ian Italian(adj)' Italy(N) + ian(suff) -un Unbelieve(adj)' un(preff) + believe(adj)
-ic Arabic(adj)' arab(N) + ic(suff) -re Reproduce(V)' re(preff) + produce(V)
Allomorphs
Allomorphs are the variant forms of a morpheme. English indefinite article has 2 allomorphs, a and an. Besides that, English plural has three allomorphs, -s (books), -z (cotes) and -iz (glasses). It is provide information about grammatical function by relating words of a sentence. Such as:
a. Prepositions ' about, at, with, after, up, etc.
b. Article ' a, an, the.
c. Pronouns ' I, you, they, we, he, she and it.
d. Modal verbs ' should, must, need, can, could, may, will, would, might, etc.
e. Inflectional affixes ' -s, -ing, -ed.
f. Determiners ' the, more, most, much, many, either, neither.
g. Auxiliary verbs ' be (am, is, are), got, have, do, etc.
h. Conjunctions ' and, that, when, while, although, or, but, whom, whose.
i. Particles ' no, not, nor, as.
The other examples of allomorphs:
A, an and the examples -in, -im, -il, - ir and the examples
A A sentence, a community, a part, a simple, a unique, a dependent, a lawyer, a period, a variant, a computer, a material, a company, a headmaster, a lecture, a university, a unit, a uniform, -in Incompabality, incompetence, informal, invalid, incorrect, inconsiderable.
-im impersonal, impolite, immaterial, imperfect, imbalance, impatrent, immeasurable, immovable, immobile, immoral, immorality, immobility.
An an interest, an orange, an honest, an egg, an English, an advise, an activity, an effect, an object, an individual, an independent, an ugly, an earth, an easy, an effective, an alternative, an ultimate, an Indonesia.
-il illegal, illegality, illegible, illegitimacy, illegitimate.
-ir irrational, irreconcilable, irresponsive, irresponsibility, irresolute, irreplaceable, irresolution, irreversible.
C. AFFIXES
Affixes are a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes are consist of nine groups, there are:
1. Infix
An infix is an affix inserted inside a stem (an existing word) or inserted in the middle. English has very few true infixes and those it does have are marginal. A few are heard in colloquial speech, and a couple more are found in technical terminology.
" The infix "iz" or "izn" is characteristic of hip-hop slang, for example hizouse for house and shiznit for shit.
" The "ma" infix, such as in sophistimacated, saxomaphone, and edumacation.
2. Prefixes
Prefixes are attached to the beginnings of the base word. Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word. Example:
" prefix + verb ' verb
Prefix Meaning Example
Re- Again or back Reproduce, rebuild, revisit
Dis- Reverses the meaning of verb Disappear, disconnect, discontinue
over- Too much Overbook, oversleep, overwork
Un- Reserves the meaning of verb Unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis- Badly or wrongly Misunderstand, misidentify
" prefix + noun ' noun
Prefix Meaning Example
anti- Against Anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
Auto- Self Autobiography, automobile
Bi- Two Bilingualism, biculturalism
Co- Joint Co-founder, co-descendant
counter- Against Counter-argument, counter-proposal
Dis- The converse of Discomfort, dislike
" prefix + adjective ' adjective
Prefix Meaning Example
Un- Negative meaning Unfortunate, Uncomfortable, unjust
Im- Negative meaning Immature, impatient, improbable
In- Negative meaning Inconvenient
il- Negative meaning Illegal
ir- Negative meaning Irreplaceable
3. Suffixes
Suffixes are that are attached at the end of the base (active'activate). Suffixes usually do change the class of word.
" Verb + suffix ' verb
Suffix Meaning Example
-tion Action/instance of Ving Demonstration, alteration
-ant Person who V-s Assistant, consultant
-er Person who V-s something used for Ving Advertiser, driver, silencer, computer
-ment Action/instance of V-ing Development, punishment
-age Action/result of V Breakage, wastage, package
4. Circumfix
A circumfix is an affix, a morpheme that is placed around another morpheme. Circumfixes contrast with prefixes (attached to the beginnings of words), suffixes (attached at the end) and infixes (inserted in the middle).
The circumfix is probably most widely known from the:
" German past participle ( ge- -t for regular verbs). The verb spielen , for example, has the participle gespielt .
" Dutch has a similar system ( spelen - gespeeld in this case).
" In older English, the present participle could be formed using the circumfix a- -ing, for example: Old time is still a-flying
There are three categories of circumfix:
" a-ing (ahunting, arunning)
" em-en (embiggen, embolden, embrighten)
" e-en (enlighten)
5. Simulfix
A simulfix is a type of affix that changes one or more existing phonemes in order to modify the meaning of a morpheme, changes a segment of a stem. In English is generally considered irregularities, all of which left over from pluralization rules,
for example:
" phenomena ' phenomenon
" lose ' lost
" choose ' chosen
6. Suprafix
A suprafix is a type of affix where a suprasegmental change (such as tone or stress) modifies an existing morpheme's meaning. The placement of stress in the following words signals the difference between a noun and a related verb:
" Compact, adj' /`k?m'p￦kt/
" Compact, n' /'k?mp￦kt /
" Progress, n' /`pr??gres /
" Progress v' / pr?'gres/
7. Separable Affix
A separable affix is an affix that can be detached from its stem and located elsewhere in a construction. In some verb forms, the verb and affix appear in one word, whilst in others the verb stem and the affix are separated. German , Dutch , and Hungarian are notable for having many separable verbs.
a. German
" Er ist angekommen (He has arrived / Dia telah tiba)
" Ich komme morgen an (I shall arrive tomorrow / aku akan tiba besok)
b. Ducth
" Hij is aangekomen (He has arrived / Dia telah tiba)
" Ik kom morgen aan (I shall arrive tomorrow / aku akan tiba besok)
c. Hungarian
" Leteszem a telefon (I hang up the phone / Saya menutup telepon)
" Nem teszem le a telefon (I do not hang up the phone / Saya tidak menutup telepon).
8. Derivational Affix
A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original. Derivational affixes serve to alter the meaning of a word by building on a base.
In the examples of words with prefixes and suffixes above, the addition of the prefix un- to healthy alters the meaning of healthy. The resulting word means "not healthy". The other example:
" Successful
" Sadness
" Maker
9. Inflectional affix.
There are a large number of derivational affixes in English. In contrast, there are only eight "inflectional affixes" in English, and these are all suffixes. English has the following inflectional suffixes, which serve a variety of grammatical functions when added to specific types of words. These grammatical functions are shown to the right of each suffix:
a. Cats ' noun plural
b. Uncle's ' noun possessive
c. Walks ' verb present tense third person singular
d. Making ' verb present participle/gerund
e. Showed ' verb simple past tense
f. written ' verb past perfect participle
g. Faster ' adjective comparative
h. Longest ' adjective superlative.
D. HOMOPHONE
Homophone is made from two combining forms homo- (from the Greek word "homos", meaning same) and -phone (from the Greek word "phone", meaning voice or sound). Therefore, homophones are word of the same language that are pronounced alike even if they differ in spelling, meaning, or origin, such as "pair" and "pear". In the other word, homophones are words that have exactly the same sound (pronunciation) but different meanings and (usually) spelling.
Examples:
a. Same sound but different meaning'deer/animal/ and dear/loved/.
b. The two words have the same sound and spelling but different meaning'hand/part of body/ and hand/side/
c. Usually homophones are in grounds of two (see, sea), but very occasionally they can be in groups of three or even four'to, too, two
Oronyms
Oronyms are words which sound the same. Generally the word homophone is used to describe one of a pair or group of words that have the same sound (like prince and prints; allowed and aloud), whilst oronyms are normally strings of words (phrases) such as iced ink and I stink.
Here are some more phrases that sound the same:
" A politician's fate often hangs in a (delicate / delegate) balance.
" Any (grey day / grade A) would be bad news for one professor I know.
" I don't know how (mature / much your) people enjoy such a show.
" I have (known oceans / no notions) that you yourself couldn't imagine.
" If you listen you can hear the (night rain / night train).
Homographs
Two words that have different pronunciations but the same spelling, for example:
o How'rhyming with go and referring to an instrument for shooting arrows, and
o How'rhyming with cow and indicating a bending of the body as a form of respectful greeting.
E. LEXICAL CATEGORY
Lexical category can also called word class. Lexical class or in traditional grammar is called part of speech, it is a linguistic category of words which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behavior. There are two kinds of word classes, opened word class and closed word class
Opened word class
Which constantly acquire new members. Opened word class is a word class that accepts the addition of new items, through such processes as compounding, derivation, coining, borrowing, etc. typical open word classes are nouns, verbs and adjectives. There are kinds of opened word class:
1. Adjectives
An adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's referent. Collectively, adjectives form one of the traditional English eight parts of speech, though linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that also used to be considered adjectives.
A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:
" Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, small is an attributive adjective in "small bus".
" Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, sad is a predicate adjective in "they are sad" and in "that made me sad".
" Absolute adjectives do not belong to a larger construction, and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to; for example, happy is an absolute adjective in "The girl, happy with her doll, did not look where he was going".
" Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, "I read two books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy", happy is a nominal adjective, short for "happy one" or "happy book".
2. Adverbs
An adverb is a part of speech. It is any word that modifies any part of language other than a noun (modifiers of nouns are primarily adjectives and determiners). Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives (including numbers), clauses, sentences and other adverbs. In English, they often end in -ly. This function is called the adverbial function, and is realized not just by single words (i.e., adverbs) but by adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses.
Other languages may form adverbs in different ways, if they are used at all:
ￒ In Dutch adverbs have the basic form of their corresponding adjectives and are not inflected (except for comparison in which case they are inflected like adjectives, too).
ￒ In German the term Adverb is differently defined than in the English language. German adverbs form a group of not inflectable words (except for comparison in which in rare cases some are inflected like adjectives, too). An English adverb, which is derived from an adjective, is arranged in the German language under the adjectives with adverbial use in the sentence.
ￒ Modern Standard Arabic forms adverbs by adding the indefinite accusative ending '-an' to the root. For example, kathiir-'many, becomes kathiiran'much. However, Arabic often avoids adverbs by using a cognate accusative plus an adjective.
3. Interjections
An interjection or exclamation is a lexical category used as a way to refer to some mentioned or understood noun without a grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence, by simply expressing an isolated emotion on the part of the speaker (although most interjections have clear definitions). Filled pauses such as uh, er, um, are also considered interjections. Interjections are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence or in a sentence by themselves.
Interjections are used when the speaker encounters events that cause emotions. The emotions are often strong (surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, enthusiasm, etc.), but are not necessarily so (boredom, irritation, mild surprise, etc.). However, several languages have interjections that cannot be related to emotions.
4. Nouns
Noun that they are all and only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, or idea, etc. and can be the subject or object of a verb.
Classification of nouns in English
a. Proper nouns and common nouns
Proper nouns (also called proper names) are nouns representing unique entities (such as London, Jupiter, Johnny or Toyota), as distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of entities (such as city, planet, person or car). Proper nouns are not normally preceded by an article or other limiting modifier (such as any or some), and are used to denote a particular person, place, or thing without regard to any descriptive meaning the word or phrase may have. The meaning of proper noun capitalization is uniqueness within an implicit context, that is, it provides a name to an instance of a general type when the instance is unique within an implicit context.
b. Count nouns and mass nouns (Countable and uncountable nouns)
Count nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an indefinite article (a or an). Examples of count nouns are chair, nose, and occasion.
Mass nouns (or non-count nouns) differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they can't take plural or combine with number words or quantifiers. Examples from English include laughter, cutlery, helium, and furniture. For example, it is not possible to refer to a furniture or three furnitures. This is true even though the pieces of furniture comprising furniture could be counted. Thus the distinction between mass and count nouns should not be made in terms of what sorts of things the nouns refer to, but rather in terms of how the nouns present these entities.
c. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity, even when they are inflected for the singular. Examples include committee, herd, and school (of fish). These nouns have slightly different grammatical properties than other nouns. For example, the noun phrases that they head can serve as the subject of a collective predicate, even when they are inflected for the singular. A collective predicate is a predicate that cannot normally take a singular subject. An example of the latter is talked amongst themselves.
d. Concrete nouns and abstract nouns
Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least, be observed by at least one of the senses (for instance, chair, apple, Janet or atom).
Abstract nouns, refer to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts (such as justice or hatred). Many abstract nouns are formed by adding noun-forming suffixes (-ness, -ity, -tion) to adjectives or verbs. Examples are happiness (from the adjective happy), circulation (from the verb circulate) and serenity (from the adjective serene).
5. Verbs (except auxiliary verbs, demonstrative adjectives, and possessive adjectives)
Verb is word or phrase that shows what a person or thing, It's also a word (part of speech) that conveys action (bring, read, walk, run, murder), or a state of being (exist, stand). A verb may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object.
o Valency
The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its valency or valence. Verbs can be classified according to their valency:
Valency The example Note
Intransitive She bought the verb buy describes the
idea of buying
transitive She bought shoes what was bought is specified
ditransitive She bought her sister shoes both the bought and the recipient are set forth.
o Copula
A copula (plural: copulae), also called a passive verb or linking verb, is a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate (a subject complement or an adverbial). The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a link or tie that connects two different things.
The term copula is generally used to refer to the main copular verb(s) in a language. In the case of English, this is the verb to be. The term can also be used to refer to some other verbs in the language which fulfill similar functions. Other English copulae include to become, to get, to feel, and to seem.
o Verbal noun and verbal adjective
A verbal noun that is describes the action of the verb. There are several kinds of verbal nouns, including gerunds (seeing), infinitives (to see), and supines.
Verbal adjectives are generally called participles. English has an active participle / a present participle' I heard the sound of breaking glas; and a passive participle / a past participle' I saw the broken glass scattered across the floor.
o Agreement (Verb conjugation)
In languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument (what we tend to call the subject) in person, number and/or gender. With the exception of the verb to be, English shows distinctive agreement only in the third person singular, present tense form of verbs, which, in regular verbs, is marked by adding "-s" (I walk, he walks). The rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb (I walk, you walk, they walk, etc.).
6. Particles
A particle is a function word that is not assignable to any of the traditional grammatical word classes (such as pronouns, articles or conjunctions). The term is a catch-all term for a heterogeneous set of elements and lacks a precise universal definition. It is mostly used for words that help to encode grammatical categories (such as negation, mood or case) and are uninflected. In English, the infinitive marker to and the negator not are examples of words that are usually regarded as particles. Different types of particles in English:
1. Articles, infinitival, prepositional, and adverbial particles
Types of particles Word Examples
Articles* the The big family
Infinitival to To submit
Prepositional over I went over the hill.
Adverbial particles even Even the youngest of them.
Phrasal verbs put off We put it off too long.
Note: *The indefinite article a or an cannot really be classed as uninflected, due to their inherently singular meaning disbarring them from plural usage
2. Interjections, sentence connectors, and conjunctions
Because of their similar functions, interjections, sentence connectors, and conjunctions should be grouped together:
Type of particles The examples
Interjections ah, alas, farewell, goodbye, hello, hi, hmm, hum, no, oh, ouch, wow, yes
Sentence connectors so, well, still, yet, as, also, however, nevertheless, otherwise, moreover, in addition, furthermore, besides, first, second, finally, last but not least, lastly, thus, hence, on the other hand, anyway, then, too
Conjunctions And, or, nor, but, while, although/though, for, because, unless, since
7. Measure words
Measure words, known more formally as numeral classifiers and also called counters, count words, counter words, or counting words, are words (or morphemes) that are used in combination with a numeral to indicate the count of nouns.
Kinds of measure words Examples
Distinction between mass nouns and count nouns " five head of cattle (said by ranchers)
" ten stem of roses (said by florists)
" three pair of pants (or pairs)
Units of measurement " three cups of coffee
" four kernels of corn, three ears of corn, two bushels of corn
" one litre of water
A number alone can be used as an adjective to modify the noun to be counted " four pencils
" three horses
The number and the measure word are combined as a single word when counting " musicians: solo, duet, trio, quartet...
" wombmates: twins, triplets, quadruplets....
8. Adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions)
Linguists sometimes distinguish between a preposition, which precedes its phrase, a postposition, which follows its phrase, and a circumposition, which surrounds its phrase. Taken together, these three parts of speech are called adpositions. In more technical language, an adposition is an element that, prototypically, combines syntactically with a phrase and indicates how that phrase should be interpreted in the surrounding context. Some linguists use the word "preposition" instead of "adposition" for all three cases.
The some uses of English prepositional phrases:
Uses as the examples
Modifier to a verb Sleep throughout the winter
Modifier to a noun The weather in April
The complement of verb Insist on staying home
The complement of noun An amendment to the constitution
The complement of an adjective or adverb Attentive to their needs / Separately from its neighbors
The complement of another preposition Until after supper
9. Preverbs
Although not widely accepted in linguistics, the term preverb is used in Caucasian (including all three families: Northwest Caucasian, Northeast Caucasian and Kartvelian), Caddoan, Athabaskan, and Algonquian linguistics to describe certain elements prefixed to verbs.
Theoretically, any prefix could be called a preverbal element. However, in practice, the term preverb applies more narrowly in these families, and refers to a prefixed element that is normally outside the premise of verbal morphology, such as locations of noun elements, or less often, noun elements themselves.
10. Pronouns
A pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase) with or without a determiner, such as you and they in English. The replaced phrase is called the antecedent of the pronoun. For example, consider the sentence "Lisa gave the coat to Phil." All three nouns in the sentence can be replaced by pronouns: "She gave it to him."
a) Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things:
Personal pronouns Used The examples
Subjective pronouns when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause I like to eat chips, but she does not.
Objective pronouns when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause John likes me but not her.
Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition Anna and Maria looked at him.
Disjunctive pronouns in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts Who does this belong to? Me.
Dummy pronouns when grammatical rules require a noun (or pronoun), but none is semantically required It is raining.
b) Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership.
o In a strict sense, the possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns' Those clothes are mine.
o Often, though, the term "possessive pronoun" is also applied to the so-called possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners)'I lost my wallet.
c) Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates'I'll take these.
d) Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things'Anyone can do that.
e) Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned'People who smoke should quit now.
11. Contractions
A contraction is the shortening of a word, syllable, or word group by omission of internal letters. In traditional grammar, contraction can denote the formation of a new word from one word or a group of words, for example by elision ("I am" contracted to "I'm").
Full form Contracted The example
Not -n't She can't sing.
Am -'m I'm doing homework.
Am not/is not Ain't If I ain't got you.
Are -'re We're a good team.
Is -'s Jack's a smart boy.
Does It's a nice place in Indonesia last year.
Has Mary's taken papers in the willy's shop.
Have -'ve He and I've finished discuss.
Had -'d You'd bought car yesterday.
Did Mika and Bill'd gone to the movie last night.
Would Mr. joseph'd big house in the city.
Will -'ll Tania'll make a big concert in Jakarta.
Of o'- Today is 9 o'clock.
Let us Let's Let's go to the campus.
12. Cardinal numbers
Cardinal numbers refer to the size of a group.
Nominal Note
0 Zero (nought)
1 One
11 Eleven
12 Twelve
13 Thirteen
20 Twenty
90 Ninety
21 Twenty-one If a number is in the range 21 to 99, and the second digit is not zero, one should write the number as two words separated by a hyphen
25 Twenty-five
64 Sixty-four
79 Seventy-nine
83 Eighty-three
99 Ninety-nine
100 One hundred The hundreds are perfectly regular, except that the word hundred remains in its singular form regardless of the number preceding it, thousand is too
1.000 One thousand
21.000 Twenty-one thousand
100.000 One hundred thousand
999.000 Nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand
1.000.000 One million
10.000.000 Ten million
Closed word class
A closed class (or closed word class) is a word class to which no new items can normally be added, and that usually contains a relatively small number of items. Which acquire new members infrequently if at all. Different languages may have different lexical categories, or they might associate different properties to the same one and not all languages have the same lexical categories, for example:
ￒ Spanish uses adjectives almost interchangeably as nouns while English cannot.
ￒ Japanese has two classes of adjectives where English has one.
ￒ Chinese and Japanese have measure words while European languages strictly speaking don't.
ￒ Many languages do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, or adjectives and nouns, etc.
1. Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary is a verb functioning to give further semantic or syntactic information about the main or full verb following it. Functions of the English auxiliary verb, there are:
" Passive voice
The auxiliary verb be is used with a past participle to form the passive voice; for example, the clause "the door was opened" implies that someone (or something) opened it, without stating who (or what) it was. Because many past participles are also stative adjectives, the passive voice can sometimes be ambiguous; for example, "at 8:25, the window was closed" can be a passive-voice sentence meaning, "at 8:25, someone closed the window", or a non-passive-voice sentence meaning "at 8:25, the window was not open". Perhaps because of this ambiguity, the verb get is sometimes used colloquially instead of be in forming the passive voice, "at 8:25, the window got closed."
" Progressive aspect
The auxiliary verb be is used with a present participle to form the progressive aspect; for example, "I am riding my bicycle" describes what the speaker is doing at the very moment of utterance, whereas "I ride my bicycle" is a temporally broader statement.
" Dummy
Properties of the English auxiliary verb
Full verb Definition Examples
Negation Auxiliaries tke not (or n't) to form the negative Cannot (can't), will not (won't), should not (shouldn't), etc.
Inversion Auxiliaries invert to form questions We will watch TV'Will we watch TV
Emphasis The dummy auxiliary do is used for emphasis in positive statements I do like this shirt!
Ellipsis Auxiliaries can appear alone where a main verb has been omitted, but is understood. I will go, but she will not
The verb do can act as a pro-VP (or occasionally a pro-verb) to avoid repetition. John never sings in the kitchen, but Mary does in the shower'John never sings in the kitchen, but she does.
Tag question Auxiliaries can be repetead at the end of a sentence, with negation added or removed. You will come, won't you?
You ate, didn't you?
2. Clitics
A clitic is a morpheme that is grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent on another word or phrase. It is pronounced like an affix, but works at the phrase level.
Classification of clitics
Clitics Examples
Proclitic English: an apple
Enclitic Latin: Senatus Populusque Romanus'Senate people and Roman = The Roman Senate and people.
Mesoclitic Portuguese: Ela lev￡-lo-ia'She take-it-COND" = "She would take it.
Endoclitic
3. Coverbs
Coverb is a term in theoretical linguistics most often applied in languages with serial verb construction, but also for complex predicates consisting of two verbs with one of them being an auxiliary verb contributing different kinds of information like modality, direction or aktionsart. It fulfills a similar function as adpositions would in many Indo-European languages like Dutch or Russian. Coverbs exist in a number of east and south-east Asian languages (e.g. Chinese), as well as west African languages (e.g. Yoruba).
4. Conjunctions
A conjunction (abbreviated CONJ or CNJ) is a part of speech that connects two words, phrases or clauses together. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" should be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins. The definition can also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same function as a single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).
5. Determiners (articles, quantifiers)
A determiner is a noun-modifier that expresses the reference of a noun or noun-phrase in the context, including quantity, rather than attributes expressed by adjectives. This function is usually performed by articles, demonstratives, possessive determiners, or quantifiers.
source: http://cuwie91.wordpress.com/2010/05/26/materi-morphology/
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